Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences was
developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard
University. Here is a discussion of the eight different intelligences Dr.
Gardner proposes and their relationship to the ESL / EFL classroom. Each
explanation is followed by lesson plans or exercises which can be used in
class.
Verbal / Linguistic
Explanation and understanding through the use
of words.
This is the most common means of teaching. In
the most traditional sense, the teacher teaches and the students learn.
However, this can also be turned around and students can help each other
understand concepts. While teaching to other types of intelligences is
extremely important, this type of teaching focuses on using language and will
continue to play the primary role in learning English.
Example Lesson Plans
(re)Introducing Phrasal Verbs to ESL Students
Comparative and Superlative Forms
Countable and Uncountable Nouns - Noun
Quantifiers
Reading - Using Context
Visual / Spatial
Explanation and comprehension through the use
of pictures, graphs, maps, etc.
This type of learning gives students visual
clues to help them remember language. In my opinion, the use of visual, spatial
and situational clues is probably the reason learning a language in an English
speaking country (Canada, USA, England, etc.) is the most effective way to
learn English.
Example Lesson Plans
Business Lesson Describing Trends
Using Colored Pens Drawing in the Classroom -
Expressions
Finish the Alphabet - Adjective Recognition
Vocabulary Charts
Body / Kinesthetic
Ability to use the body to express ideas,
accomplish tasks, create moods, etc.
This type of learning combines physical actions
with linguistic responses and are very helpful for tying language to actions.
In other words, repeating "I'd like to pay by credit card." in a
dialogue is much less effective than having a student act out a role-play in
which he pulls out his wallet and says, "I'd like to pay by credit
card."
Example Lesson Plans
Lego Building Blocks
Young Learner's Games for ESL Classes - Simon
Says
Telephone English
Interpersonal
Ability to get along with others, work with
others to accomplish tasks.
Group learning is based on interpersonal
skills. Not only do students learn while speaking to others in an
"authentic" setting, they develop English speaking skills while
reacting to others. Obviously, not all learners have excellent interpersonal
skills. For this reason, group work needs to balanced with other activities.
Example Lesson Plans
Conversation Lesson: Multinationals - Help or
Hindrance?
Creating a New Society
Guilty - Fun Classroom Conversation Game
Let's Do Tourism
Logical / Mathematical
Use of logic and mathematical models to
represent and work with ideas.
Grammar analysis falls into this type of
learning style. Many teachers feel that English teaching syllabi are too loaded
towards grammar analysis which has little to do with communicative ability.
Nonetheless, using a balanced approach, grammar analysis has it's place in the
classroom. Unfortunately, because of certain standardized teaching practices,
this type of teaching sometimes tends to dominate the classroom.
Example Lesson Plans
Match-up!
English Grammar Review
Different Uses of "Like"
Conditional Statements - Reviewing the First
and Second Conditional
Musical
Ability to recognize and communicate using
melody, rhythm, and harmony.
Intrapersonal
Learning through self-knowledge leading to
understanding of motives, goals, strengths and weaknesses.
This intelligence is essential for long-term
English learning. Students who are aware of these types of issues will be able
to deal with underlying issues that can improve or hamper English usage.
Example Lesson Plans
Setting ESL Objectives
English Learning Goals Quiz
Environmental
Ability to recognize elements of and learn from
the natural world around us.
Six types of task for TBL
This is the second in a series of four articles
which will explore how to integrate a task-based approach into a typical
textbook to maximise learning opportunities for your learners and to save
teacher preparation time.
Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL
Six types of task for TBL
From priming tasks and target tasks to language
focus and grammar
Making time for tasks and still covering the
syllabus
In this article we look at different types of
task, and see which kinds are most often used in textbooks. I also suggest ways
of adjusting them so that they stimulate more opportunities for meaning-focused
interaction, and encourage learners to give longer responses. Finally I show
how a graded set of tasks can be developed on a theme.
Identifying task-like activities
In my first article Criteria for identifying
tasks for TBL, we looked at six questions that gave us criteria to help us
identify tasks and ‘upgrade' potential task-like activities into tasks. So now
we can identify activities in a textbook unit that could become tasks and form
the basis of a task cycle with;
Pre-task activities,
Task - Planning - Report cycle,
Post-task activities as illustrated in the
activity Planning a class night out.
However, tasks tend to come in various
disguises. Some textbooks contain quite a few task-like activities, but very
few use the word ‘task’ to describe them. They often come under section
headings like: Speak out! Listening challenge; Think … then compare ideas;
Reach a decision; With a partner… In groups… It’s your turn… Questions and
answers... Discuss ... Tell your partner… Writing… Reading or even under
Grammar or Vocabulary…
For example, in ‘Total English’, a text-book
for beginners, the activity: ‘Who is your favourite 20th Century icon? Tell
your partner about the person.’ comes at the end of a Grammar section on ‘was /
were’ which follows a reading activity.
There are several ways to turn this into a more
rewarding task – as illustrated in Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL and
you can also build up a graded set of tasks around this theme - as illustrated
below.
Three types of task
Activities like the following generally have
the potential to become effective tasks:
Listing and/or brainstorming
You can list people, places, things, actions,
reasons, everyday problems, things to do in various circumstances etc.
Examples:
(1) In pairs, agree on a list of four or five
people who were famous in the 20th century and give at least one reason for
including each person; Can you remember your partner’s busiest day?
(2) On your own, make a list of all the things
he/she did. Then check with your partner. Were there any things you forgot?
Ordering and sorting
This can be sequencing, ranking, or
classifying.
Examples:
(3) In pairs, look at your list of famous
people. Which people are most likely to remain popular and become 20th century
icons? Rank them from most popular to least popular, and be prepared to justify
your order to another pair.
(4) Look at the four pictures. They are mixed
up. Work in pairs. Put the four pictures in a sequence so that they tell a
story. Prepare to tell your story to another pair.
Matching
You can match captions / texts / recorded
extracts to pictures; short notes or headlines to longer texts, e.g. news
items.
Examples:
(5) Read the texts – each is about a famous
person but the person is not named - and look at the photos. Match each text to
a photo. Then talk to your partner, and say how you were able to match them.
Prepare to tell the class how you did it.
(6) Read the four headlines A to D. Match two
pieces of information (given in 1-8 below) to each headline. Explain to your
partner how you did this. What clues did you find? Did you both use the same
clues?
Do you have any tasks like these in your
textbooks? Sometimes textbooks use Listing, Ordering and Matching activities at
the beginnings of units, to introduce or revise useful words and phrases to
prepare for the main topics. The outcomes are usually clear (e.g. a completed
list, a set of matched information). But although they give valuable exposure
to relevant topic-based language in the form of reading texts or recordings,
they rarely stimulate much learner interaction as they stand.
Stimulating more interaction
All the examples I have given above are based
on activities from real text books, but in each case I have added a further
step or two to stimulate additional meaning-focused language use.
In 1 and 3 learners are asked to give reasons
for or justify their decision
In 2, 5 and 6 they do the tasks individually
then explain to their partner how they did them
In 3, 4 and 5 they are asked to prepare to
explain how they did the task or tell their story to another pair or to the
whole class.
Three more type tasks
Comparing: finding similarities and differences
Comparison tasks can be based on two quite
similar texts or pictures (a classic example is ‘Spot the Differences’) or
places or events etc that learners have experience of. Learners can also
compare their own work with that of another learner or another pair or group.
Examples:
Compare your list of possible 20th century
icons with your partner’s list. Did you have any people in common? Tell each
other why you chose them. How many reasons did you both think of? Finally,
combine your two lists, but keep it to five people.
Tell your picture story to another pair and
listen to theirs. Compare stories – make a list of the main similarities and
differences.
You will by now have noticed that many of these
tasks carry on the same themes as in previous tasks. It is possible to build up
‘a set of tasks’ on the same theme, each one arising out of the previous one.
This is an excellent way to build learner’s confidence – once they are familiar
with the basic vocabulary for the topic, they can then do a range of activities
recycling the topic language and using it for different purposes in a set of
tasks.
Problem-solving
Text-books often contain activities based on
common problems – pollution, relationships, noisy neighbours and so on. But
sometimes problem-solving tasks are over too quickly – learners agree on the
first solution that comes to mind, using minimal language, e.g. ‘Noisy
neighbours? OK – so call police’. The instructions for the town centre traffic
problem in the example below incorporate six or seven ways of generating richer
interaction. Which of these ways might you use with your classes?
Example:
Think of a town centre where there is too much
traffic. In twos, think of three alternative solutions to this problem. List
the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative. Then decide which
alternative would be the cheapest one, the most innovative one, the most
environmentally friendly one. Report your decisions to another pair / group /
the class, and discuss with them which solution would be the best one to put
forward to the local government.
More complex tasks like comparing and problem
solving sometimes involve processes found in simpler tasks, like listing – see
previous examples. The task above – problem-solving - involves listing and
quite a lot of comparing and evaluating.
Sharing personal experiences and story telling
Activities where learners are asked to recount
their personal experiences and tell stories are valuable because they give
learners a chance to speak for longer and in a more sustained way. And it is
something we often do in real-life. However, as we saw from the ‘Grandparents’
activity in Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL, the instructions for
activities where learners are encouraged to relate things from their personal
lives are often rather vague and open-ended. In order to encourage richer interaction,
we usually need to add a clear goal, make instructions more precise, and give
clear completion points. See Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL which gives
several ways to adjust activities like these.
Summary
So far we have identified and commented on six
types of task that sometimes appear in textbooks or that can be adapted from
task-like activities. We have seen that a set of tasks can be built up around
one topic. We have looked at ways of stimulating richer learner interaction and
giving more opportunities for genuine meaning-focused language use and
maximising learner responses.
Other activities like quizzes, questionnaires
and projects can also generate rich interaction if set up in such a way as to
maximise learner participation. Tasks can also be based on reading and
listening texts. For three examples of task-based lessons such as these you can
download see http://www.willis-elt.co.uk/taskbased.html
In my next article, I will show how we can
exploit text-book material to help structure a task sequence, incorporating
Pre-task activities, a task-cycle, leading on to language focus and form
focused work.
What is TBL?
How often do we as teachers ask our students to
do something in class which they would do in everyday life using their own
language? Probably not often enough.
If we can make language in the classroom
meaningful therefore memorable, students can process language which is being
learned or recycled more naturally.
Task-based learning offers the student an
opportunity to do exactly this. The primary focus of classroom activity is the
task and language is the instrument which the students use to complete it. The
task is an activity in which students use language to achieve a specific
outcome. The activity reflects real life and learners focus on meaning, they
are free to use any language they want. Playing a game, solving a problem or
sharing information or experiences, can all be considered as relevant and
authentic tasks. In TBL an activity in which students are given a list of words
to use cannot be considered as a genuine task. Nor can a normal role play if it
does not contain a problem-solving element or where students are not given a
goal to reach. In many role plays students simply act out their restricted
role. For instance, a role play where students have to act out roles as company
directors but must come to an agreement or find the right solution within the
given time limit can be considered a genuine task in TBL.
In the task-based lessons included below our
aim is to create a need to learn and use language. The tasks will generate
their own language and create an opportunity for language acquisition
(Krashen*). If we can take the focus away from form and structures we can
develop our students’ ability to do things in English. That is not to say that
there will be no attention paid to accuracy, work on language is included in
each task and feedback and language focus have their places in the lesson
plans. We feel that teachers have a responsibility to enrich their students’
language when they see it is necessary but students should be given the
opportunity to use English in the classroom as they use their own languages in
everyday life.
How can I use TBL in the classroom?
Most of the task-based lessons in this section
are what Scrivener** classifies as authentic and follow the task structure
proposed by Willis and Willis***.
Each task will be organized in the following
way:
Pre-task activity an introduction to topic and
task
Task cycle: Task > Planning > Report
Language Focus and Feedback
A balance should be kept between fluency, which
is what the task provides, and accuracy, which is provided by task feedback.
A traditional model for the organization of
language lessons, both in the classroom and in course-books, has long been the
PPP approach (presentation, practice, production). With this model individual
language items (for example, the past continuous) are presented by the teacher,
then practised in the form of spoken and written exercises (often pattern drills),
and then used by the learners in less controlled speaking or writing
activities. Although the grammar point presented at the beginning of this
procedure may well fit neatly into a grammatical syllabus, a frequent criticism
of this approach is the apparent arbitrariness of the selected grammar point,
which may or may not meet the linguistic needs of the learners, and the fact
that the production stage is often based on a rather inauthentic emphasis on
the chosen structure.
An alternative to the PPP model is the
Test-Teach-Test approach (TTT), in which the production stage comes first and
the learners are "thrown in at the deep end" and required to perform
a particular task (a role play, for example). This is followed by the teacher
dealing with some of the grammatical or lexical problems that arose in the
first stage and the learners then being required either to perform the initial
task again or to perform a similar task. The language presented in the ‘teach’
stage can be predicted if the initial production task is carefully chosen but
there is a danger of randomness in this model.
Jane Willis (1996), in her book ‘A Framework
for Task-Based Learning’, outlines a third model for organizing lessons. While
this is not a radical departure from TTT, it does present a model that is based
on sound theoretical foundations and one which takes account of the need for
authentic communication. Task-based learning (TBL) is typically based on three
stages. The first of these is the pre-task stage, during which the teacher
introduces and defines the topic and the learners engage in activities that
either help them to recall words and phrases that will be useful during the
performance of the main task or to learn new words and phrases that are
essential to the task. This stage is followed by what Willis calls the
"task cycle". Here the learners perform the task (typically a reading
or listening exercise or a problem-solving exercise) in pairs or small groups.
They then prepare a report for the whole class on how they did the task and
what conclusions they reached. Finally, they present their findings to the
class in spoken or written form. The final stage is the language focus stage,
during which specific language features from the task and highlighted and
worked on. Feedback on the learners’ performance at the reporting stage may
also be appropriate at this point.
The main advantages of TBL are that language is
used for a genuine purpose meaning that real communication should take place,
and that at the stage where the learners are preparing their report for the
whole class, they are forced to consider language form in general rather than
concentrating on a single form (as in the PPP model). Whereas the aim of the
PPP model is to lead from accuracy to fluency, the aim of TBL is to integrate
all four skills and to move from fluency to accuracy plus fluency. The range of
tasks available (reading texts, listening texts, problem-solving, role-plays,
questionnaires, etc) offers a great deal of flexibility in this model and should
lead to more motivating activities for the learners.
Learners who are used to a more traditional
approach based on a grammatical syllabus may find it difficult to come to terms
with the apparent randomness of TBL, but if TBL is integrated with a systematic
approach to grammar and lexis, the outcome can be a comprehensive, all-round
approach that can be adapted to meet the needs of all learners.
Tasks: Getting to know your centre
The object of the following two tasks is for
students to use English to:
Find out what resources are available to them
and how they can use their resource room.
Meet and talk to each of the teachers in their
centre.
To do these tasks you will require the PDF
worksheets at the bottom of the page.
Task 1: Getting to know your resources
Level: Pre-intermediate and above
It is assumed in this lesson that your school
has the following student resources; books (graded readers), video, magazines
and Internet. Don’t worry if it doesn’t, the lesson can be adjusted
accordingly.
Pre-task preparation: One of the tasks is a
video exercise which involves viewing a movie clip with the sound turned off.
This can be any movie depending on availability, but the clip has to involve a
conversation between two people.
Pre-task activity: In pairs students discuss
the following questions:
Do you use English outside the classroom?
How?
What ways can you practise English outside the
classroom?
Stage one - Running dictation
Put the text from worksheet one on the wall
either inside or outside the classroom. Organize your students into pairs. One
student will then go to the text, read the text and then go back to her partner
and relay the information to her. The partner who stays at the desk writes this
information. When teams have finished check for accuracy. You can make this
competitive should you wish.
Stage two
In pairs students then read the Getting To Know
Your Resources task sheet (worksheet two). Check any problem vocabulary at this
stage. This worksheet can be adapted according to the resource room at your
school.
Stage three
Depending on how the resources are organized in
your centre, students then go, in pairs, to the resource room or wherever the
resources are kept and complete the tasks on the task sheet.
Stage four
Working with a different partner students now
compare and share their experience.
Stage five - Feedback
Having monitored the activity and the final
stage, use this opportunity to make comments on your students’ performance.
This may take form of a correction slot on errors or pronunciation, providing a
self-correction slot.
Task 2 - Getting to know your teachers
Level: Pre-intermediate and above
Students may need at least a week to do this
activity, depending on the availability of the teachers in your centre
Pre-task activity: In pairs students talk about
an English teacher they have had.
What was her name?
Where was she from?
How old was she?
Do you remember any of her lessons?
What was your favourite activity in her class?
Stage one
Using the Getting To Know Your Teachers task
sheet (worksheet three) and the Interview Questions (worksheet four) students
write the questions for the questionnaire they are going to use to interview
the teachers.
Stage two
To set up the activity students then interview
you and record the information.
Stage three
Depending on which teachers are free at this
time they can then go and interview other teachers and record the information.
You may wish to bring other teachers into your class to be interviewed or
alternatively give your students a week or so to complete the task,
interviewing teachers before or after class, or whenever they come to the
centre.
Stage four
Working with a different partner students
compare their answers and experiences then decide on their final answers on the
superlative questions.
Stage five
Feedback and reflection. Allow time for
students to express their opinions and experiences of the activity. Provide any
feedback you feel is necessary.
Further activities
The Get To Know Your Resources task sheet could
be turned into a school competition entry form. Possible prizes could include a
video or some readers.
References
*Krashen, S. (1996). The Natural Approach:
Language Acquisition in the Classroom. Prentice Hall
**Scrivener, J. (2005). Learning Teaching.
Macmillan.
Anchor Point:bottom
***Willis, J. & Willis, D. (eds.) (1996).
Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Macmillan (now out of print).
Note from editor: Jane and Dave Willis have
recently published another book (see below)
Willis, D. & Willis, J. (2007), Doing
Task-based Teaching. Oxford University Press
They have also set up a website which offers
articles on task-based teaching and a number of lesson plans:
http://www.willis-elt.co.uk/
COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
Not a highly structured method of teaching. Rather
a broad assembly of ideas from a range of sources which have come to be
accepted as 'good practice' by many contemporary teachers.
Origins of Approach
In 1960's and 70's foreign language learning
was widely extended with the establishment of comprehensive schools. Led to the
teaching of a foreign language to virtually all children. Created pressure for
a change in teaching methods and curriculi to suit the needs of non-traditional
groups of learners. Recognition of inadequacy of traditional grammar/translation
methods and also of 'structural' methods with emphasis on meaningless pattern
drills and repetition.
New syllabuses took into account needs of
different pupils. Traditional academic syllabuses had assumed learner's goal
was in-depth mastery of target language. But for less academic pupil a more
immediate 'pay-off' was necessary, in terms of usefulness for practical
purposes.
Communicative Method
1
Focuses on language as a medium of communication. Recognises that all
communication has a social purpose - learner has something to say or find out.
2
Communication embraces a whole spectrum of functions (e.g. seeking
information/ apologising/ expressing likes and dislikes, etc) and notions (e.g.
apologising for being late / asking where the nearest post office is).
3 New
syllabuses based on communicative method offered some communicative ability
from early stage.
Graded Objectives in Modern Languages -
movement which flourished in 1970's and 80's - raised pupils' motivation through
short-term objectives and through teaching language appropriate to a range of
relevant topics and situations (e.g. shopping/ hobbies/ exchanges).
4
Hitherto languages were taught in a vacuum - language for the sake of
language / passing exams - rather than language for true communication.
Professor Dodson distinguishes between language
as a 'medium' level communication and as a 'message' level communication, ex.
1) Young lady teacher is teaching Yr 7 pupils to say how old they are ( 'tu as quel
age?'. ). They are merely practising the pattern in the foreign language, for
the sole purpose of mastering the construction - teacher actually knows the age
of the class - pupils also know that the teacher knows their age. According to
professor Carl J Dodson, they are all performing at 'medium' level, ie.
practising how to say it in the language but with no added purpose.
2) Suddenly, a curious member of the class
raises his hand and asks the young lady teacher 'tu as quel age?'. This is
language being used at a totally different and higher level, ie 'message' level
( pupil doesn't know the teacher's age, but actually uses the construction
practised at the 'medium' level for a specific purpose, namely that of finding
out the teacher's age!
One has to practise language at 'medium' level
first in order to be able to exercise it at 'message' level. The problem is
that a great number of teachers never used to go beyond 'medium' level and use
the language for true purposes of sending and receiving 'messages'. They were
teaching pupils 'about' the language, about its patterns and rules, rather than
using it actively for real purposes!
Prior to National Curriculum, teaching was left
almost totally at 'medium' level. Very little scope to test true communicative
ability or to use the language spontaneously.
5
Classroom activities maximise opportunities for learners to use target
language in a communicative way for meaningful activities. Emphasis on meaning
(messages they are creating or task they are completing) rather than form
(correctness of language and language structure) - as in first language
acquisition.
6 Use
of target language as normal medium for classroom management and instruction -
reflects naturalistic language acquisition.
7 Communicative
approach is much more pupil-orientated, because dictated by pupils' needs and
interests.
8 Accent is on functional/ usable language.
Learners should be able to go to foreign country, prepared for reality they
encounter there. Need to be able to cope / survive in a variety of everyday
situations.
9 Classroom should provide opportunities for
rehearsal of real-life situations and provide opportunity for real
communication. Emphasis on creative role-plays/ simulations/ surveys/ projects/
playlets - all produce spontaneity and improvisation - not just repetition and
drills.
10 More emphasis on active modes of learning,
including pairwork and group-work - often not exploited enough by teachers
fearful of noisy class.
11
Primacy of oral work. Emphasis on oral and listening skills in the
classroom. Contact time with language is all-important - paves way for more
fluid command of the language / facility and ease of expression. Not just
hearing teacher, but having personal contact themselves with language,
practising sounds themselves, permutating sentence patterns and getting chance
to make mistakes and learn from doing so.
12
Errors are a natural part of learning language. Learners trying their
best to use the language creatively and spontaneously are bound to make errors.
Constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-productive. Correction
should be discreet / noted by teacher - let them talk and express themselves -
form of language becomes secondary.
13
Communicative approach is not just limited to oral skills. Reading and
writing skills need to be developed to promote pupils' confidence in all four
skill areas. By using elements encountered in variety of ways (reading/
summarising/ translating/ discussion/ debates) - makes language more fluid and
pupils' manipulation of language more fluent.
14
Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional
ways alongside more innovative approaches. Recognised that communication
depends on grammar. Disregard of grammatical form will virtually guarantee
breakdown in communication.
15
Language analysis and grammar explanation may help some learners, but
extensive experience of target language helps everyone. Pupils need to hear
plenty said about the topic in the foreign language at regular and recurrent
intervals, so they are exposed to the topic and can assimilate it. (Not mere
passive acquisition of certain lexical items).
16
Communicative approach seeks to personalise and localise language and
adapt it to interests of pupils. Meaningful language is always more easily
retained by learners.
17 Use
of idiomatic/ everyday language (even slang words 'bof bof' / 'i'sais pas').
This is kind of language used in communication between people - not a 'medium'/
grammatical/ exam-orientated/ formal language!
18
Makes use of topical items with which pupils are already familiar in
their own language - motivates pupils arouses their interest and leads to more
active participation.
19
Avoid age-old texts - materials must relate to pupils' own lives / must
be fresh and real (cf. Whitmarsh texts developing language but not
communicative language!) Changing texts and materials regularly keeps teacher
on toes and pupils interested.
20
Language need not be laboriously monotonous and 'medium' orientated. Can
be structured but also spontaneous and incidental. Language is never static.
Life isn't like that - we are caught unawares, unprepared, 'pounced upon!'
Pupils need to practise improvising/ ad-libbing/ talking off the cuff, in an
unrehearsed but natural manner.
21
Spontaneous and improvised practice helps to make minds more flexible
and inspire confidence in coping with unforeseen, unanticipated situations.
Need to 'go off at tangents' / use different registers / develop alternative
ways of saying things.
22
Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources. More
interesting and motivating. In Foreign language classroom authentic texts serve
as partial substitute for community of native speaker. Newspaper and magazine
articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone directories, videos, news
bulletins, discussion programmes - all can be exploited in variety of ways.
23
Important not to be restricted to textbook, Never feel that text-book must
be used from cover to cover. Only a tool / starting-point. With a little
inspiration and imagination, text-book can be manipulated and rendered more
communicative. Teacher must free himself from it, rely more on his own command
of language and his professional expertise as to what linguistic items, idioms,
phrases, words, need to be drilled / exploited/ extended.
24 Use
of visual stimuli - OHP/ flashcards, etc - important to provoke practical
communicative language. (3 stages presentation / assimilation/ reproducing
language in creative and spontaneous way).
Visual resources can be exploited at whatever
level one wishes - help to motivate and focus pupils' attention.
Communicative Language Teaching: An
Introduction And Sample Activities
Ann Galloway, Center for Applied Linguistics
This digest will take a look at the
communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages. It is intended as
an introduction to the communicative approach for teachers and
teachers-in-training who want to provide opportunities in the classroom for
their students to engage in real-life communication in the target language.
Questions to be dealt with include what the communicative approach is, where it
came from, and how teachers' and students' roles differ from the roles they
play in other teaching approaches. Examples of exercises that can be used with
a communicative approach are described, and sources of appropriate materials
are provided.
What is communicative language teaching?
Communicative language teaching makes use of
real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a
situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the
audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and
drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the
outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and
responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students'
motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways
about meaningful topics.
Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of
communicative language teaching, writes in explaining Firth's view that
"language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and has a clear
relationship with society. In this light, language study has to look at the use
(function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered
before and after a given piece of discourse) and its social, or situational,
context (who is speaking, what their social roles are, why they have come
together to speak)" (Berns, 1984, p. 5).
What are some examples of communicative
exercises?
Gunter Gerngross, an English teacher in
Austria, gives an example of how he makes his lessons more communicative. He
cites a widely used textbook that shows English children having a pet show.
"Even when learners act out this scene creatively and enthusiastically,
they do not reach the depth of involvement that is almost tangible when they
act out a short text that presents a family conflict revolving round the
question of whether the children should be allowed to have a pet or not"
(Gerngross & Puchta, 1984, p. 92). He continues to say that the
communicative approach "puts great emphasis on listening, which implies an
active will to try to understand others. [This is] one of the hardest tasks to
achieve because the children are used to listening to the teacher but not to
their peers. There are no quick, set recipes. That the teacher be a patient
listener is the basic requirement" (p.98).
The observation by Gerngross on the role of the
teacher as one of listener rather than speaker brings up several points to be
discussed in the next portion of this digest.
How do the roles of the teacher and student
change in communicative language teaching?
Teachers in communicative classrooms will find
themselves talking less and listening more becoming active facilitators of
their students' learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). The teacher sets up the
exercise, but because the students' performance is the goal, the teacher must
step back and observe, sometimes acting as referee or monitor. A classroom
during a communicative activity is far from quiet, however. The students do
most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during a communicative
exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task.
Because of the increased responsibility to participate, students may find they
gain confidence in using the target language in general. Students are more
responsible managers of their own learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).
Where can I learn more about communicative
teaching?
All of the following documents on communicative
language teaching are in the ERIC database. They can be read on microfiche at
any library housing an ERIC collection or purchased in microfiche or paper copy
from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS), 7420 Fullerton Road, Suite
110, Springfield, VA 22153-2852 (1-800-443-3742).
Ben-Barka, A. C. [1982]. In search of a
language teaching framework: An adaptation of a communicative approach to
functional practice. (EDRS No. ED239507, 26 pages)
Das, B. K. (Ed.) (1984). Communicative language
teaching. Selected papers from the RELC seminar (Singapore). Anthology Series
14. (EDRS No. ED266661, 234 pages)
Littlewood, W. T. (1983). Communicative
approach to language teaching methodology (CLCS Occasional Paper No. 7).
Dublin: Dublin University Trinity College, Centre for Language and
Communication Studies. (EDRS No. ED235690, 23 pages)
Pattison, P. (1987). The communicative approach
and classroom realities. (EDRS No. ED288407, 17 pages)
Riley, P. (1982). Topics in communicative
methodology: Including a preliminary and selective bibliography on the
communicative approach. (EDRS No. ED231213, 31 pages)
Savignon, S. J., & Berns, M. S. (Eds.).
(1983). Communicative language teaching: Where are we going? Studies in
Language Learning, 4(2). (EDRS No. ED278226, 210 pages)
Sheils, J. (1986). Implications of the
communicative approach for the role of the teacher. (EDRS No. ED268831, 7
pages)
Swain, M., & Canale, M. (1982). The role of
grammar in a communicative approach to second language teaching and testing.
(EDRS No. ED221026, 8 pages) (not available separately; available from EDRS as
part of ED221023, 138 pages)
Willems, G., & Riley, P. (Eds.). (1984).
Communicative foreign language teaching and the training of foreign language
teachers. (EDRS No. ED273102, 219 pages)
Readers may also wish to consult the following
journal articles for additional information on communicative language teaching.
Clark, J. L. (1987). Classroom assessment in a
communicative approach. British Journal of Language Teaching, 25(1), 9-19.
Dolle, D., & Willems, G. M. (1984). The
communicative approach to foreign language teaching: The teacher's case.
European Journal of Teacher Education, 7(2), 145-54.
Morrow, K., & Schocker, M. (1987). Using
texts in a communicative approach. ELT Journal, 41(4), 248-56.
Oxford, R. L., et al. (1989). Language learning
strategies, the communicative approach, and their classroom implications.
Foreign Language Annals, 22(1), 29-39.
Pica, T. P. (1988). Communicative language
teaching: An aid to second language acquisition? Some insights from classroom
research. English Quarterly, 21(2), 70-80.
Rosenthal, A. S., & Sloane, R. A. (1987). A
communicative approach to foreign language instruction: The UMBC project.
Foreign Language Annals, 20(3), 245-53.
Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the
communicative approach (1). ELT Journal, 39(1), 2-12.
Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the
communicative approach (2). ELT Journal, 39(2), 76-87.
Terrell, T. D. (1991). The role of grammar
instruction in a communicative approach. Modern Language Journal, 75(1), 52-63.
References And Resources
Berns, M. S. (1984). Functional approaches to
language and language teaching: Another look. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns
(Eds.), Initiatives in communicative language teaching. A book of readings (pp.
3-21). Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.
Gerngross, G., & Puchta, H. (1984). Beyond notions
and functions: Language teaching or the art of letting go. In S. Savignon &
M. S. Berns (Eds.), Initiatives in communicative language teaching. A book of
readings (pp. 89-107). Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and
principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Littlewood, W. (1981). Language teaching. An
introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Savignon, S., & Berns, M. S. (Eds.).
(1984). Initiatives in communicative language teaching. Reading, PA:
Addison-Wesley.
Applying Principled Eclecticism
While this "loose" approach may sound
either ideal or simplistic depending on your point of view, it requires a basic
grasp of some of the principle schools of thought as a means of getting an
overview of issues directly related to satisfying learners' needs. In a
nutshell, the application of principled eclecticism proceeds by first
addressing the issue of learners' needs and styles. Once these two basic
elements have been evaluated, the teacher can develop a needs analysis which
can then be used to develop the course syllabus.
Definitions
Interlanguage Skill: A scala of languages that
fit the level of the student's language skill at any moment. In other words,
there are many levels of speaking a language each of which can be sufficient
for a given student.
Comprehensible Input: Originated by Krashen,
the core of this idea is that if we do not understand the input we cannot
learn.
Negotiation of Meaning: Interactional
hypothesis that states that learning comes about in the moment of exchange
between a native speaker and a non-native speaker.
Product Oriented Approach: The accumulation of
bits and pieces of a language (for example, learning tenses and doing exercises
based on correct tense usage).
The following two cases give examples of the
process involved in applying this approach to different types of classes.
Class 1 Needs and Styles
Age: young adults from 21-30
Nationality: class of German students located
in Germany
Learning Styles: college educated, familiarity
with product oriented approach to learning a language, widely traveled and
familiarity with other European cultures.
Goals: First Certificate Examination at end of
course
Interlanguage Skills: all students can communicate
in English and accomplish most common language tasks (i.e., completing
day-to-day tasks in a native speaker society, telephone, expressing viewpoints,
etc.), higher level complexity such as writing essays, expressing complex
arguments in fine detail is next desired step.
Course Duration: 100 hours
Approach
As the First Certificate Examination is the
goal of the course and there is a limited number of hours, the course will have
to often employ a deductive (i.e., teacher centered, book learning) approach in
order to complete all the grammatical tasks required by the examination.
Students are very familiar with traditional
learning approaches such as grammar charts, drill exercises, etc. In this case,
awareness raising concerning basic language patterns will not be necessary.
However, as the students are quite young and most fresh out of college, they
may have to be helped to understand and accept more innovative (i.e.,
inductive) approaches to learning (i.e., role-playing for improving speaking
skills, general class discussions with little or no correction) as they are
probably used to more goal oriented study situations.
As the First Certificate Exam includes many
authentic materials, students will benefit greatly from exercises that focus on
the negotiation of meaning. This negotiation of meaning is a type of
interactional learning that comes about in the moment of exchange with a native
speaker context that requires the learner to "negotiate meaning"
thereby expanding his language skills.
Objectives of the First Certificate Examination
will be the overriding factor in the determination of class activities. In
other words, activities based on Neuro Linguistic Programming may not be
desirable as this approach to teaching focuses on a "holistic" learning
method, which, unfortunately, may not provide all the bits and pieces required
to complete the examination exercises such as sentence transformation.
As the course duration is limited and the
objectives are many, there will be little time for experiments and
"fun" activities. Work needs to be focused and principally goal
oriented.
Class 2 Needs and Styles
Age: immigrant adults from 30-65
Nationalities: a variety of countries
Learning Styles: most of the class has had
little secondary education and has not studied languages formally
Goals: Basic ESL skills for everyday usage and
job aquisition
Interlanguage Skills: basic tasks such as
ordering a meal and making a telephone call are still difficult
Course Duration: 2 month intensive course
meeting four times weekly for two hours
Approach
The approach to teaching this class is dictated
by two principal factors: need for "real world" skills, lack of
background in traditional learning styles
Pragmatic functional English is of prime
importance. Luckily, the course is intensive and provides the perfect
opportunity for intensive role-playing and "real world" game
activities.
As students are immigrants and a native speaker
environment is at hand, teaching can also take place by bringing the "real
world" into the classroom and/or - even more preferably - taking the
classroom out into the "real world".
Low level English skills mean that
comprehensible input will play a great role in the success or failure of the
class. Considering the low level of interlanguage skill, students desperately
need the teacher to help them by filtering experiences into a comprehensible
form so that they may make sense of situations that are too difficult if faced
on a strictly "authentic" level.
Learning by process will be of great
importance. The positive side of low-level education is that students are not
attached to traditional learning methods such as grammar charts, exercises,
etc. The use of holistic learning approaches can be very effective as students
will not have any pre-conceived notions about what learning should be like.
CALL
There has been much debate over the use of
computer assisted language learning (CALL) in the ESL/EFL classroom over the
past decade. As you are reading this feature via the Internet (and I am writing
this using a computer), I will assume that you feel that CALL is useful to your
teaching and/or learning experience.
There are many uses of the computer in the
classroom. In today's feature I would like to provide some examples of how I
like to use CALL in my teaching. I find that CALL can be successfully employed
not only for grammar practice and correction, but also for communicative
activities. As most of you are familiar with the programs that offer help with
grammar, I would like to focus on the use of CALL for communicative activities.
Successful communication learning is dependent
on the student's desire to participate. I'm sure most teachers are familiar
with students who complain about poor speaking and communication skills, who
however, when asked to communicate, are often reluctant to do so. In my
opinion, this lack of participation is often caused by the artificial nature of
the classroom. When asked to communicate about various situations, students
should also be involved in the actual situation. Decision making, asking for
advice, agreeing and disagreeing, and compromising with fellow students are all
tasks that cry out for "authentic" settings. It is in these settings
that I feel CALL can be used to great advantage. By using the computer as a
tool to create student projects, research information and provide context,
teachers can employ the computer to help students become more involved in the
task at hand, thereby facilitating the necessity of effective communication
within a group setting.
Exercise 1 Focus on Passive Voice
Generally, students coming from around the
world are more than happy to speak about their native country. Obviously, when
speaking about a country (city, state etc.) the passive voice is required. I
have found the following activity using the computer to be of great assistance
in helping students focus on the correct use of the passive voice for
communication and reading and writing skills.
Inductively review the passive structures in
class (or introduce the passive structures)
Provide a text example, focusing on a specific
location, that includes many passive voice structures
Have students read through the text
As a follow up, have students separate passive
voice and active voice examples
Using a program such as Microsoft Encarta or
any other multimedia encyclopedia, (or the Internet) have students working in
small groups find information about their own nation (or any city, state etc.)
Based on the information they have found,
students then write a short report together at the computer (using a spell
check, communicating about formatting etc.)
Students then report back to the class
presenting their report created at the computer
This exercise is a perfect example of involving
students in an "authentic" activity that focuses on communication
skills while at the same time including a grammar focus, and uses the computer
as a tool. Students have fun together, communicate in English and are proud of
the results they achieve - all ingredients for successful inductive learning of
the passive voice in a communicative manner.
Exercise 2 Strategy Games
For younger learners of English, strategy games
can be one of the most effective ways to get students to communicate, agree and
disagree, ask for opinions and generally use their English in an authentic
setting. Students are asked to focus on the successful completion of a task
such as solving riddles (Myst, Riven) and developing strategies (SIM City).
Choose a strategy game such as a SIM or mystery
Have students divide into teams
Create a specific task in the game itself, such
as the completion of a certain level, the creation of a certain type of
environment, the solving of a specific riddle. This is important for providing
a framework and specific language needs/goals for a common ground in the
classroom.
Have students complete the task.
Have students come together in the classroom
and compare strategies.
Once again, students who find it difficult to
participate in a classroom setting (Describe your favourite holiday? Where did
you go? What did you do? etc.) generally become involved. The focus is not on
their completing a task which can be judged as correct or incorrect, but rather
on the enjoyable atmosphere of team work which a computer strategy game
provides.
These are just a two examples of the various
ways in which a computer can be used as a tool with which students are
encouraged to participate in satisfying communicative experiences. Below are
further links providing information on the use of the computer in the classroom
What is a meme?
A cultural unit (an idea or value or pattern of
behavior) that is passed from one person to another by non-genetic means (as by
imitation); "memes are the cultural counterpart of genes"
A meme can be a simple idea, or a complex idea.
The most important point about a meme is that it propagates. In other words, a
meme is an idea, value or pattern of behavior that is especially attractive and
is passed from one person to the next - or even one society to the next.
Let's take an idea of a simple meme: 'love,
love, love (music) love, love, love ...' If you are familiar with the Beatles
you probably are humming that tune right now. That tune is a meme (at least as
it is understood by the experts - references below!). It is passed around the
world through the radio, people singing, etc. The Beatles were very good at
creating musical memes, and the life of their music continues on beyond their
own lives.
A more complex meme might be the idea of
democracy. Many feel that this is the best system in the world, while others
might vehemently disagree. It's an idea that's very attractive and has been
passed down through the generations. Some people (Richard Dawkins who
originated the idea) claim that religions are memes.
The great thing about thinking about ideas,
values, etc. in terms of being memes is that it allows you to distance yourself
from memes. If it is just an idea that is propagated effectively, it is not
necessarily THE TRUTH. How does this apply to learning English? I think that many
of our learning techniques are memes. They are ideas that have been passed down
from one teacher to another, to students, etc. They are ideas about how you
should learn a language. Unfortunately, what makes a good meme does not always
make a good language learning technique! Let's take a look at what I consider
to be some of the more damaging memes.
The best way to learn grammar is to study all
the rules.
It's best not to speak if you are going to make
a lot of mistakes.
The only way to read English is to make sure
you understand each and every word.
You should be able to translate from your own
language while speaking English.
These are all methods that someone, at
sometime, thought were the best techniques. Remember all the conjugation
drills? Just a meme! Many memes teach us things that are very helpful - that is
a reason they are so successful as memes. However, it is important to keep in
mind that many learning techniques are passed on as memes, but might not
necessarily be truly what you need. Any idea or technique that doesn't work for
you or your class should be thrown overboard! There's no reason to keep a meme
around once its past its prime.
On the other hand, there are plenty of
excellent memes that will help with language learning. Here are some of my
favorites:
Language is made up of chunks - learn the most
common chunks.
Study vocabulary in context.
Multiple intelligences means everybody can
learn a language - they just need to figure out their own.
Learning styles are important and you should
look for educational tools that leverage your type of intelligence.
Role-plays are a useful way of practicing
English.
Social networks can help you find English
speaking friends.
Of course, these ideas are not necessarily
strong memes - yet. I hope that some of these ideas do well as memes, because I
believe they are powerful teaching tools. I also do my best to present these
ideas on my site to help them become stronger memes.
To return to my original argument: Some
language learning rules are really just strong memes that have been very
successful in propagating themselves. If these memes do not seem to be working
for you or your class in your English language learning, try to find some new,
stronger, and more helpful for you. Go out and launch the memes you like best,
help them grow strong, and hopefully, you will help others improve their own
English learning experience.
Lesson
Plan
There are many different approaches to teaching
English. However, most of these plans tend to follow this standard lesson plan
format.
Warm-up
Presentation
Controlled practice
Free practice
Feedback
This lesson plan format is popular for many
reasons including:
Students have a number of chances to learn a
concept through various means
Students have plenty of time to practice
Teachers can give detailed instruction, or
students can deduce structures and learning points through practice
The standard lesson plan format provides
structure
It provides for variation over the course of 60
- 90 minutes
This lesson plan format moves from teacher
centered to student centered learning
Variations on the Lesson Plan Format Theme
In order to keep this standard lesson plan
format from becoming boring, it is important to remember that there are a
number of variations that can be applied within the various segments of the
lesson plan format.
Warm-up
Students might arrive late, tired, stressed or
otherwise distracted to class. In order to get their attention, it's best to
open with a warm-up activity. The warm-up can be as simple as telling a short
story or asking students questions. The warm-up can also be a more thought-out
activity such as playing a song in the background, or drawing an elaborate
picture on the board. While it's fine to start a lesson with a simple "How
are you", it's much better to tie your warm-up into the theme of the
lesson.
Presentation
The presentation can take a variety of forms:
Reading selection
Soliciting students' knowledge about a specific
point
Teacher centered explanation
Listening selection
Short video
Student presentation
The presentation should include the main
"meat" of the lesson. For example: If you are working on phrasal
verbs, make the presentation by providing a short reading extract peppered with
phrasal verbs.
Controlled practice
The controlled practice section of the lesson
provides students direct feedback on their comprehension of the task at hand.
Generally, controlled practice involves some type of exercise. Remember that an
exercise doesn't necessarily mean dry, rote exercises, although these can be
used as well. Controlled practice should help the student focus on the main
task and provide them with feedback - either by the teacher or other students.
Free practice
Free practice integrates the focus structure /
vocabulary / functional language into students' overall language use. Free
practice exercises often encourage students to use the target language
structures in:
Small group discussions
Written work (paragraphs and essays)
Longer listening comprehension practice
Games
The most important aspect of free practice is
that students should be encouraged to integrate language learned into larger
structures. This requires more of a "stand-off" approach to teaching.
It's often useful to circulate around the room and take notes on common
mistakes. In other words, students should be allowed to make more mistakes
during this part of the lesson.
Feedback
Feedback allows students to check their
understanding of the lesson's topic. Feedback can be done quickly at the end of
class by asking students questions about the target structures. Another
approach is to have students discuss the target structures in small groups,
once again giving students the chance to improve their understanding on their
own.
